Two Cultures: Contact, Conflict, Conquest and Conciliation
By Padma
Mohan Kumar
Right from ancient times, India had faced innumerable
foreign invasions. But with the passage of time, the invaders had settled
in the country, mingled with the local population and got assimilated into
the Indian way of life. Indian history forms a fascinating study of the
initial clash and subsequent coexistence between various cultures during
different periods. Each period of the history of this country enriches its
culture with its unique beauty.
The Glories of Ancient India
Ancient Indian
civilization which spanned a vast time frame dating from the
pre-historic era till the 7th century AD was famed throughout the world
for its glorious achievements in both the sciences and the arts. The zero
and the decimal system were notable contributions of ancient India to
mathematics. Aryabhatta, the famed astronomer of the 6th century AD had
accurately calculated the movement of the earth around the sun.
In the field of medicine too a highly-developed system had evolved by the
4th century AD. The Charaka Samhita is a well-known medical treatise of
this period. Medical practitioners were familiar with surgical skills such
as repairing injured body parts, setting bones, etc. Sushruta was a famous
surgeon of this era. Plastic surgery was also known in ancient India.
Tools for various surgical procedures such as suturing, cauterization and
fluid extraction had been developed.
The India of those times had made giant strides in architecture too. The
skill of these artisans is evident in the rich carvings of the ancient
temples. The hard rock sculptures carved out on the temple walls have
lasted for centuries. The style of rock-cut architecture which was first
mastered by the Buddhists was later on adopted by the Hindu rulers. One
can for instance view these stunning masterpieces on the way to Gwalior
Fort. Rock-cut architecture was prevalent in the South too. South Indian
temples owe their grandeur to the granite and metal used in their
construction.
Ancient Indian treatises dealing with both art and architecture stressed
on the importance of color in arts and crafts as well as in buildings. The
remarkable achievements of this time were the invention of paints which
were used on buildings. Despite the vagaries of time these colors have
retained their brightness. The most famous instances are the temples of
Ellora and the cave paintings of Ajanta which have survived for more than
1000 years.
Till the 7th century AD ancient India had been unified by strong dynasties
such as the Guptas and the Mauryas. An important reason for the
technological progress in this period was the generous state support and
encouragement given to it. But with the passage of time, there was a
change in the situation. During the 7th century there was a decline in
state support, especially in the Rajput kingdoms. Further the death of
powerful rulers like Harsha of Kanauj and Pulakesin II of the Chalukyan
dynasty in the Deccan marked the decline of ancient Indian culture and
civilization and the end of national unity.
Orthodox Brahminism had established its dominance by then and under the
influence of the priestly class, scientific learning and technological
progress suffered a setback. Learning was made the sole privilege of the
Brahmins. The liberalism of the earlier eras was replaced by rigid
casteism in which barriers between different castes were enforced. Social
evils such as untouchability and inequality set in. Foreign travel was
forbidden as a result of which India became totally ignorant of
developments in the outside world. Scientific reasoning and logic were
replaced by blind belief and faith. Owing to the strong hold of
superstition, battlefield strategies were planned according to
astrological timings rather than to the situation on the battle front.
There was no concept of national unity due to the rigid caste barriers.
Military duty was the sole privilege of the Kshatriyas or the warrior
caste. Contemporary writers had noted the fact that peasants were calmly
tilling the soil even when there were battles raging nearby. The 7th and
8th centuries represent a landmark era in Indian history as it was during
this period that India entered a dark period in its history. The country
witnessed the major incursions by forces from Arabia followed by
onslaughts from the Turks of Central Asia in the later centuries. The Arab invasion
India on the eve of these invasions between the 8th and 12th centuries
presented a picture of disunity. It was divided into several small states
and principalities. Though the ruling elite of these states belonged to
different castes, they were referred to as Rajputs. For instance, King Dahir of Sindh was a Brahmin whereas the Rajputs of southern Afghanistan
(then known as Zabulistan) belonged to the Bhatti clan. Each state owed
its loyalty to its ruler and there was no sense of national identity.
There were frequent feuds and wars between these states which hampered the
growth of national unity. More than anything else, these conflicts were a
show of military prowess which involved the wastage of valuable lives and
resources. This practice proved to be extremely dangerous in the long run
as it prevented them from uniting against the invaders from Arabia and
Central Asia.
Owing to its fabulous wealth, its weak political structure, and the poor
state of its defense preparedness India was literally a sitting duck for
the muslim invaders from Arabia and later on the Turks from Central Asia.
The two conflicting forces presented a study in contrasts. As opposed to
the lack of patriotism among the Indians, the Arab and Turkish forces were
unified by their religious zeal. Fired by their fervor for Islam they
fought like desperadoes. They were inspired by their zeal to spread Islam
by force and felt that regardless of victory or defeat, glory would be
theirs. The Rajputs on the other hand had nothing higher than class or
clan interests to fight for. Moreover; the invaders were militarily far
superior as they were better organized and were well acquainted with the
latest techniques of warfare.
The foreign onslaughts initially met with fierce resistance from the
defending forces but they ultimately gained victory after much bloodshed.
The first invasion was by the Arabs in the 8th century. Under the
leadership of the young Muhammad Bin Qasim, they attacked Daibul in the
Indus valley. Daibul was a port in those days located in the same site as
present-day Karachi. A contemporary historian has left an interesting
account of the conflict which took place in 712 AD. His narrative contains
descriptions of a giant catapult set up by Muhammad Bin Qasim’s troops to
launch the offensive with Arab spearmen posted along a trench dug out near
the catapult. The attackers had stationed themselves outside the walls of
a fortification of the defenders. As many as 500 soldiers were needed to
work the catapult which was nicknamed ‘The Bride’. The attackers brought
down the flagstaff of a temple inside the fort and this so disheartened
the defenders that they were easily defeated by the Arab invaders.
Sindh which was then ruled by King Dahir was the next kingdom to be
attacked by the Arabs. Dahir put up a heroic resistance but he was killed
in battle and his kingdom was captured. Most of the women had immolated
themselves, while those remaining were tortured and molested. According to
contemporary lore, which affords us an interesting peek into those
tempestuous times, two virgin princesses of king Dahir’s family were
captured by Bin Qasim and sent to the Caliph so that the latter could
satisfy his carnal desire. But the royal maidens destroyed their virginity
and told the Caliph that Bin Qasim himself had initially outraged their
modesty. The Islamic leader saw the evidence of their destroyed virginity,
believed their story despite Bin Qasim’s protestations of innocence and
had the latter put to death. The Impact of Arab Rule on India and Vice Versa
The Arab conquest of Sindh and Multan established the first victory of
Islam in India. This period represented the contact and conflict between
Islamic and Hindu cultures. After their initial conquests the Arabs made
further attempts to extend their territorial possessions in India but
their attempts were thwarted by the Indian princes.
The initial period of conflict with the Indians gradually gave way to
conciliation and cooperation. The invaders realized that they would need
the cooperation of their Hindu subjects in ruling their new territorial
acquisitions. They gave their subjects the status of zimmis or
second-class citizens. Gradually the Indians began to be assimilated into
the administration, thus leading to cordial relations between the two.
The Arabs were fascinated by the intellectual acumen of the Indians and
the socio-cultural aspects of Indian thought. There were cultural
exchanges between the ruler and the ruled. Brahmin and Buddhist scholars
taught the Arab rulers various subjects such as mathematics, astronomy,
Indian languages, literature and philosophy. Indian books were translated
into Arabic and carried to Muslim countries so that the knowledge
contained in them could be imparted in these foreign lands. Indian styles
in architecture, music and painting also made an impact on the Arab
settlers in Multan and Sindh. Indian architectural concepts were adopted
by the Arabs in their constructions.
These settlers made Islam a part of religious life in their part of the
country. Many Indians took to Islam voluntarily. Owing to their peaceful
and conciliatory attitude, the Arabs succeeded in popularizing Islam. Thus
for three centuries, the small Muslim states of Sind and Multan coexisted
peacefully with their mighty Rajput neighbours.